A quick tour of Bible passages on men and women
A number of key passages in Scripture have become focal points in the debate over whether women may lead and teach in the church.
What follows is a very brief survey of most of these texts. For each, we state the most common patriarchal or complementarian interpretations. Then we give our own.
To keep this short, we give only a minimum of explanation. At the end, we’ve listed resources for exploring further.
Genesis 1–3 – Creation and the Fall
It is said that Genesis 2 reveals an ordered creation in which the man, who is formed first, is given the leadership “role”. The woman is made as a “helper”, and the man names her, both of which suggest his authority over her. In Genesis 3, the woman is the first to be deceived. This shows female gullibility and the need for male leadership. In Genesis 3:9, God calls to the man first because he is the leader. Genesis 3:16 confirms male rule.
But the creation narratives emphasize partnership. Both male and female are made in God’s image and given dominion in Genesis 1.
In Hebrew, the term “helper” (‘ēzer) does not imply a subordinate; this word is often used of God himself, as Israel’s strength-giving ally.
The act of naming does not necessarily imply authority. Here, the naming is an act of recognition, as in Hagar’s naming of God in Genesis 16:13.
The text does not say anything about the man leading the woman or having authority over her.
Though Adam and Eve are made differently, Eve was created to be Adam’s functionally equal counterpart, not his subordinate. Complementarity, yes. Hierarchy, no.
The Bible nowhere teaches that women are more gullible than men. Both were made in God’s image, and “very good” (Genesis 1:26–27, 31).
After the disobedience, when God calls out first to the man, this helps to show he is not a victim of the woman but is responsible for his own sin.
The disobedience led to God’s dire warning to the woman that the man would rule over her (Genesis 3:16). So, men’s rule over women was a consequence of the fall. Redemption through Christ (promised in Genesis 3:15) will restore mutuality, not hierarchy.
Women and Men in the Old Testament
It is said that examples of women in leadership in the Old Testament are exceptional and not normative. The fact that Israel’s priests were all male shows God’s intention for male spiritual authority.
But God appointed Deborah to be the highest civil and spiritual leader of God’s people – so much so that she gave commands to its top military leader (Judges 4).
God repeatedly worked through women—despite cultural norms. Consider Huldah, whose prophetic insight was sought rather than that of her male contemporaries (2 Kings 22).
So, God himself does not uphold a principle that only men should lead.
The male-only priesthood fits within the cultural and tribal structure of ancient Israel and does not reflect a universal principle. Even most men could not be priests. It prefigures the priesthood of Christ and his people. In the New Testament, all believers are “priests” (1 Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:6; 5:10; 20:6).
1 Corinthians 7, Ephesians 5, 1 Peter 3 – Marriage and Mutuality
It is said that wives are commanded to submit to their husbands as the church submits to Christ. This implies a leadership role for husbands and a supportive role for wives.
But none of these texts tells husbands to rule, lead or exercise authority over their wives.
First Corinthians 7 is the longest passage about marriage in the New Testament. Paul speaks of the authority of the husband and of the wife in identical words (7:4). He says decisions about sexual intercourse and about praying together are to be made by mutual consent (7:5). This is an astonishing teaching in a patriarchal culture.
Ephesians 5 mandates mutual submission (5:21).
In 5:25–33a, Paul vividly portrays the content of the husband’s calling as “head”. This metaphor picks up the conventional idea (in the first century) of the head nourishing the body to which it is joined. What does a head do, if it is attached to a body? It nurtures it and cares for it. So, the husband is to love and care for his wife, with whom he is united as one flesh. Paul gives no instruction to rule over her.
1 Peter 3 tells husbands to honor their wives as co-heirs of life. The emphasis is on humility and partnership, not hierarchy.
Male Apostles
It is said that Jesus’ choice of male apostles reflects his intention that church leaders be only men.
But Jesus’ choice of twelve male apostles was a symbolic and practical action for a transitional moment in salvation history. By reminding people of the twelve patriarchs, it announced that Jesus was reconstituting Israel around himself. He gave no command for this pattern to be continued in the future. After Pentecost, the pattern of 12 free male Jews was not maintained.
Jesus also included women among his close followers and commissioned them as the first witnesses to his resurrection. On history’s most important day, his male followers learned that they should be open to receiving the word of God from the mouths of their sisters (see Luke 24:9–11; John 20:11–18).
In the Great Commission (Matthew 28:18–20), Jesus made no distinction between men and women. Future disciples are to be taught to obey everything Jesus commanded. He gave no command about future leadership in the Church being exclusively male.
Junia as Apostle
It is said that Junia, whom Paul commends in Romans 16:7, was not a woman or was not an apostle, but merely, as some translations say, “well-known to the apostles”. Or, even if she was an apostle, this word may not denote a “role” which carried authority.
But Greek-speaking commentators, despite their commitment to patriarchy, were in no doubt that she was notable as a woman apostle. “Apostle” here refers to someone who broke new ground for the gospel by preaching the good news and planting and establishing churches, like Barnabas and Silas. This carried greater spiritual authority than being only a pastor or teacher.
Galatians 3:28 – Oneness in Christ
It is said that though there is spiritual equality in salvation—this has no bearing on “roles” in marriage or the church. Distinctions in function remain.
But this verse proclaims the abolition of barriers—Jew/Gentile, slave/free, male/female—in Christ. It points to a new order where such distinctions no longer limit participation in God’s purposes.
The passage’s context speaks to inheritance and inclusion in the Abrahamic promise, which has profound implications for relationships in the family of God.
We do not suggest that Galatians 3:28 is a silver bullet which resolves the discussion about women’s leadership. But it should at least make us pause to consider: is it really plausible that, elsewhere in Scripture, God would forbid women, any more than Gentiles or slaves, from leading or teaching?
Women Hosting Churches and Teaching – Priscilla and Others
It is said that women like Priscilla may have exercised influence by hosting churches or giving instruction “in private” but did not function as elders, pastors or authoritative teachers.
But in the ancient world, hosting a church in one’s own home necessarily involved retaining authority over what took place. Not just Priscilla, other women household leaders hosted churches in their homes, some of whom are named in the New Testament.
The historical evidence shows that householders were leading candidates to be overseers of the churches they hosted.
Paul left Priscilla (and her husband) to care for the new church in Ephesus (Acts 18:18–19). In the previous church which Priscilla served, men and women taught in the assembly (1 Corinthians 14:26). She is usually named before her husband, suggesting her ministerial prominence. In Ephesus, God used Priscilla to teach doctrine authoritatively to one of the great future teachers of the church (Acts 18:26). The New Testament makes no distinction between “private” and “public” teaching.
Romans 16:1–2 – Phoebe as Deacon
It is said that Phoebe is referred to simply as a “servant”, and that she did not hold the office of deacon in the way male deacons did.
However, Paul commends her as a diakonos “of the church in Cenchreae”, indicating a recognized ministry. Paul also calls her a prostatis, probably meaning patron.
1 Corinthians 11 – Head Coverings in Worship
It is said that Paul’s instructions about head coverings or hairstyles during worship are tied to the creation order. They reflect a permanent principle of male “headship”, in the sense of authority over women.
But the first thing to notice about this passage is that Paul places no restriction on the scope of women’s ministry. Men pray aloud and prophesy. So do women. This is an incontestable fact. This freedom of ministry stands, irrespective of the debate over the meaning of Paul’s head metaphor in 11:3.
Some ancient commentators understood “head” in verse 3 to mean “source”. This makes better sense of the passage than the “authority over” interpretation. The only “authority” Paul mentions is the authority of the woman over her own head (verse 10). In his argument, he uses in turn each of the three source ideas in verse 3.
In verses 11–12, Paul emphasizes the interdependence of men and women “in the Lord”.
1 Corinthians 14:34–35 – Women’s Silence in the Churches
It is said that this passage clearly prohibits women from at least some kinds of speaking in church gatherings. The leading theory of this kind is that women should not take part in evaluating prophecies. Others think Paul is banning disruptive chatter.
But those interpretations are not reasonably possible. The ban on women’s speaking is unqualified, so it applies to all kinds of speaking in the assembly, and it is stated three times for maximum emphasis. If Paul meant to convey only that women should not evaluate prophecies, or only that they should not chatter, then he was a seriously incompetent writer.
In this letter Paul repeatedly affirms women speaking in the assembly. Chapter 11 explicitly refers to them praying and prophesying. Except in these two strange verses, chapters 12 and 14 explain about God’s distribution of spiritual gifts, and the proper uses of speaking gifts in the assembly, without any distinction between men and women. In 14:26 each person may have a spoken word to offer, whether teaching or something else.
So, we should conclude that the words of verses 34–35 do not reflect Paul’s own position.
That leaves two possibilities.
One is that Paul is quoting some Corinthians, whom he disagrees with. His own answer to the Corinthians’ disorderly worship is not to completely silence women but to insist on orderly worship – see verses 36–40.
Alternatively, as manuscript anomalies suggest is more likely, these verses are a scribal insertion which was not part of Paul’s original letter.
1 Corinthians 11 and 14, when soundly interpreted, do not support a universal ban on female leadership in all churches everywhere.
1 Timothy 2:11–15 – Women Not Teaching or “Having Authority”
It is said that this is the clearest instruction that women should not teach or hold authority over men, and that it is grounded in the order of creation and in the fall.
But the literary and situational context (as signaled in 1 Timothy itself), and the canonical context (in particular the affirmations of women as leaders and teachers in the New Testament) dispel that meaning. Also, in verse 12 Paul uses a rare Greek verb (authentein) that is apt to express domination or lordship rather than the healthy kind of authority which a church elder should exercise.
Paul’s instruction is given in a context where some rich women have been deceived by false teachings. They need to learn, as Paul commands in verse 11.
In verses 13 and 14 Paul points Timothy to an apt illustration which he can use, showing the importance of not allowing a deceived woman to teach and overpower a man.
In verse 15, Paul’s enigmatic reference to being “saved through the childbearing” is a reassurance of God’s care and ultimate salvation through Christ, not a doctrine of salvation through motherhood. Paul’s unusual language alludes to the belief of worshippers of Artemis that she was a supernatural midwife who saved women in childbearing.
The weight of the letter’s context points to Paul correcting a local abuse rather than issuing a universal prohibition.
Titus 1 and 1 Timothy 3 – Qualifications for Elders
It is said that Paul’s lists of elder qualifications assume male leadership, using language like “husband of one wife” and referencing the man’s management of his household.
But women also managed households. And the masculine language reflects the fact that most candidates would be married men.
The qualifications focus on character and spiritual maturity, not sex. They are tailored to the circumstances in each location. For example, for the new churches in Crete, where Titus is working, there is no prohibition on appointing new converts (contrast 1 Tim. 3:6). Paul is giving indicators of suitability.
It is not reasonable to read them as strict requirements. We are not aware of any major group in church history which has done so. If taken strictly, Paul himself – or even Jesus – was unfit to be an elder, since he was unmarried. That is absurd.
Since, on a careful reading, there is not a strict requirement of being married, these passages also do not show that there is a strict requirement of being a man.
Romans 12, 1 Corinthians 12, Ephesians 4, 1 Peter 4 – Sovereignly Allocated Gifts
When it comes to who can lead and teach in the church, it is said that sex trumps gifting.
But the opposite is true. For Peter, Pentecost was the beginning of a new era in which vocal ministry gifts are lavishly bestowed on men and women (Acts 2:17–18). He was still of this view when he wrote 1 Peter 4:10–11.
There is nothing in any of the gifts passages that excludes women from any of the gifts—nor the functions these gifts would realistically be expressed in.
Nor is there any suggestion that only some of the church—say only women and children—should benefit from women with gifts of pastoring, evangelism, teaching, leadership or apostleship. Their gifts are for the benefit of the body (1 Corinthians 12).
Who can pastor, lead, or teach? The biblical examples of woman leaders and preachers are best explained by Paul’s counsel that God-given gifting, coupled with Christlike character, is the basis for ministry functions in the church, regardless of sex.
Explore Further
For more on Genesis 1 – 3, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 4 and
Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapters 5-6.
For more on women and men in the Old Testament, see Williams, How God Sees
Women, chapter 10 and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 7.
For more on Deborah and on Huldah, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter
10 and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 8.
For more on 1 Corinthians 7, see Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 9.
For more on Ephesians 5, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 8 and
Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapters 10 and 11.
For more on 1 Peter 3, see Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women,chapter 12.
For more on male apostles, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 11 and
Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 4.
For more on Junia, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 12 and Bartlett,
True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women,chapters 15-17.
For more on Galatians 3:28, see here.
For more on women hosting churches and on Priscilla, see Williams, How God Sees
Women, chapter 12 and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women,
chapters 13 and 14.
For more on Phoebe, see Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 13.
For more on 1 Corinthians 11:2–16, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 6
and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women,chapters 18-20.
For more on 1 Corinthians 14:34–35, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 6
and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapters 21-22.
For more on 1 Timothy 2, see Williams, How God Sees Women, chapter 7 and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapters 23-29.
For more on the qualifications for elders in Titus and 1 Timothy 3, see Williams, How
God Sees Women, chapter 13 and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 30.
For more on the women at Pentecost and on spiritual gifts, see Williams, How God
Sees Women, chapter 5 and 13 and Bartlett, True Complementarity: The Way of Christ for Men and Women, chapter 13.